Guidelines
- Consensus Statement of the American Association for Emergency Psychiatry Project BETA Psychopharmacology Workgroup. West J Emerg Med 2012;13: 26–34.
Primary Literature
Benzodiazepines: Midazolam and Lorazepam
- Bloch F, Karoui I, Boutalha S, Defouilloy C, Dubaele JM. Tolerability of Midazolam to treat acute agitation in elderly demented patients: A systematic review. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2019 Apr;44(2):143-147. doi: 10.1111/jcpt.12785. Epub 2019 Jan 21. PMID: 30666683.
- Kousgaard SJ, Licht RW, Nielsen RE. Effects of Intramuscular Midazolam and Lorazepam on Acute Agitation in Non-Elderly Subjects – A Systematic Review. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2017 Jul;50(4):129-135. doi: 10.1055/s-0043-100766. Epub 2017 Mar 14. PMID: 28293921.
- Amore M, D’Andrea M, Fagiolini A. Treatment of Agitation With Lorazepam in Clinical Practice: A Systematic Review. Front Psychiatry. 2021 Feb 22;12:628965. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.628965. PMID: 33692709; PMCID: PMC7937895.
- Zaman H, Sampson SJ, Beck AL, Sharma T, Clay FJ, Spyridi S, Zhao S, Gillies D. Benzodiazepines for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Dec 8;12:CD003079. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003079.pub4. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 29219171.
- Gillies D, Sampson S, Beck A, Rathbone J. Benzodiazepines for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Apr 30;(4):CD003079. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003079.pub3. PMID: 23633309.
- Chan EW, Taylor DM, Knott JC, Phillips GA, Castle DJ, Kong DC. Intravenous droperidol or olanzapine as an adjunct to midazolam for the acutely agitated patient: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2013 Jan;61(1):72-81. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2012.07.118. Epub 2012 Sep 13. PMID: 22981685.
- Yap CYL, Taylor DM, Knott JC, Taylor SE, Phillips GA, Karro J, Chan EW, Kong DCM, Castle DJ. Intravenous midazolam-droperidol combination, droperidol or olanzapine monotherapy for methamphetamine-related acute agitation: subgroup analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Addiction. 2017 Jul;112(7):1262-1269. doi: 10.1111/add.13780. Epub 2017 Feb 28. PMID: 28160494.
- Taylor DM, Yap CYL, Knott JC, Taylor SE, Phillips GA, Karro J, Chan EW, Kong DCM, Castle DJ. Midazolam-Droperidol, Droperidol, or Olanzapine for Acute Agitation: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2017 Mar;69(3):318-326.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.07.033. Epub 2016 Oct 10. PMID: 27745766.
- Ferraz Gonçalves JA, Almeida A, Costa I, Silva P, Carneiro R. Comparison of Haloperidol Alone and in Combination with Midazolam for the Treatment of Acute Agitation in an Inpatient Palliative Care Service. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2016 Dec;30(4):284-288. doi: 10.1080/15360288.2016.1231733. Epub 2016 Oct 17. PMID: 27749141.
- Currier GW, Chou JC, Feifel D, Bossie CA, Turkoz I, Mahmoud RA, Gharabawi GM. Acute treatment of psychotic agitation: a randomized comparison of oral treatment with risperidone and lorazepam versus intramuscular treatment with haloperidol and lorazepam. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;65(3):386-94. PMID: 15096079.
- Nobay F, Simon BC, Levitt MA, Dresden GM. A prospective, double-blind, randomized trial of midazolam versus haloperidol versus lorazepam in the chemical restraint of violent and severely agitated patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2004 Jul;11(7):744-9. doi: 10.1197/j.aem.2003.06.015. PMID: 15231461.
Ketamine
- Lin J, Figuerado Y, Montgomery A, Lee J, Cannis M, Norton VC, Calvo R, Sikand H. Efficacy of ketamine for initial control of acute agitation in the emergency department: A randomized study. Am J Emerg Med. 2021 Jun;44:306-311. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.013. Epub 2020 Apr 11. PMID: 32340820.
- Mankowitz SL, Regenberg P, Kaldan J, Cole JB. Ketamine for Rapid Sedation of Agitated Patients in the Prehospital and Emergency Department Settings: A Systematic Review and Proportional Meta-Analysis. J Emerg Med. 2018 Nov;55(5):670-681. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2018.07.017. Epub 2018 Sep 7. PMID: 30197153.
- Tran K, Mierzwinski-Urban M. Ketamine for Pharmacological Management of Aggression and Agitation in Pre-Hospital Settings: A Review of Comparative Clinical Effectiveness, Safety and Guidelines [Internet]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2019 May 13. PMID: 31487133.
- Linder LM, Ross CA, Weant KA. Ketamine for the Acute Management of Excited Delirium and Agitation in the Prehospital Setting. Pharmacotherapy. 2018 Jan;38(1):139-151. doi: 10.1002/phar.2060. Epub 2017 Dec 22. PMID: 29136301.
- Sullivan N, Chen C, Siegel R, Ma Y, Pourmand A, Montano N, Meltzer A. Ketamine for emergency sedation of agitated patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 2020 Mar;38(3):655-661. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2019.11.007. Epub 2019 Nov 29. Erratum in: Am J Emerg Med. 2020 Aug;38(8):1702. PMID: 31902698.
- Isbister GK, Calver LA, Downes MA, Page CB. Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficult-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2016 May;67(5):581-587.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2015.11.028. Epub 2016 Feb 18. PMID: 26899459.
- Isenberg DL, Jacobs D. Prehospital Agitation and Sedation Trial (PhAST): A Randomized Control Trial of Intramuscular Haloperidol versus Intramuscular Midazolam for the Sedation of the Agitated or Violent Patient in the Prehospital Environment. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2015 Oct;30(5):491-5.
- Cole JB, Moore JC, Nystrom PC, Orozco BS. A prospective study of ketamine versus haloperidol for severe prehospital agitation. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2016 Aug;54(7):556-62.
- O’Connor L, Rebesco M, Robinson C, Gross K, Castellana A, O’Connor MJ, Restuccia M. Outcomes of Prehospital Chemical Sedation With Ketamine Versus Haloperidol and Benzodiazepine or Physical Restraint Only. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2019 Mar-Apr;23(2):201-209.
- Cunningham C, Gross K, Broach JP, O’Connor L. Patient Outcomes Following Ketamine Administration for Acute Agitation with a Decreased Dosing Protocol in the Prehospital Setting. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2021 Jun;36(3):276-282.
- Parks DJ, Alter SM, Shih RD, Solano JJ, Hughes PG, Clayton LM. Rescue Intubation in the Emergency Department After Prehospital Ketamine Administration for Agitation. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2020 Dec;35(6):651-655.
Haloperidol –
- Ostinelli EG, Brooke-Powney MJ, Li X, Adams CE. Haloperidol for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation (rapid tranquillisation). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jul 31;7(7):CD009377. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009377.pub3. PMID: 28758203; PMCID: PMC6483410.
- Powney MJ, Adams CE, Jones H. Haloperidol for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation (rapid tranquillisation). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Nov 14;11:CD009377. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009377.pub2. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jul 31;7:CD009377. PMID: 23152276.
- Asadollahi S, Heidari K, Hatamabadi H, Vafaee R, Yunesian S, Azadbakht A, Mirmohseni L. Efficacy and safety of valproic acid versus haloperidol in patients with acute agitation: results of a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015 May;30(3):142-50. doi: 10.1097/YIC.0000000000000064. PMID: 25500684.
- Zhang H, Wang G, Zhao J, Xie S, Xu X, Shi J, Deng H, Li K, Gao C, Wang X, Vanderburg D, Pan S, Tang H, Shu L, Karayal ON. Intramuscular ziprasidone versus haloperidol for managing agitation in Chinese patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013 Apr;33(2):178-85. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182839612. PMID: 23422376.
- Chan HY, Ree SC, Su LW, Chen JJ, Chou SY, Chen CK, Chen YS. A double-blind, randomized comparison study of efficacy and safety of intramuscular olanzapine and intramuscular haloperidol in patients with schizophrenia and acute agitated behavior. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2014 Jun;34(3):355-8. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000120. PMID: 24743717.
- Ferraz Gonçalves JA, Almeida A, Costa I, Silva P, Carneiro R. Comparison of Haloperidol Alone and in Combination with Midazolam for the Treatment of Acute Agitation in an Inpatient Palliative Care Service. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2016 Dec;30(4):284-288. doi: 10.1080/15360288.2016.1231733. Epub 2016 Oct 17. PMID: 27749141.
- Fang M, Chen H, Li LH, Wu R, Li Y, Liu L, Ye M, Huang J, Zhu S, Wang G, Zhang Q, Zheng H, Zhang L, Wang B, Zhou J, Zhao JP. Comparison of risperidone oral solution and intramuscular haloperidol with the latter shifting to oral therapy for the treatment of acute agitation in patients with schizophrenia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012 Mar;27(2):107-13. doi: 10.1097/YIC.0b013e32834fc431. PMID: 22233697.
- Hui D, Frisbee-Hume S, Wilson A, Dibaj SS, Nguyen T, De La Cruz M, Walker P, Zhukovsky DS, Delgado-Guay M, Vidal M, Epner D, Reddy A, Tanco K, Williams J, Hall S, Liu D, Hess K, Amin S, Breitbart W, Bruera E. Effect of Lorazepam With Haloperidol vs Haloperidol Alone on Agitated Delirium in Patients With Advanced Cancer Receiving Palliative Care: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017 Sep 19;318(11):1047-1056. doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.11468. PMID: 28975307; PMCID: PMC5661867.
- Breier A, Meehan K, Birkett M, David S, Ferchland I, Sutton V, Taylor CC, Palmer R, Dossenbach M, Kiesler G, Brook S, Wright P. A double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-response comparison of intramuscular olanzapine and haloperidol in the treatment of acute agitation in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 May;59(5):441-8. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.59.5.441. PMID: 11982448.
- Currier GW, Chou JC, Feifel D, Bossie CA, Turkoz I, Mahmoud RA, Gharabawi GM. Acute treatment of psychotic agitation: a randomized comparison of oral treatment with risperidone and lorazepam versus intramuscular treatment with haloperidol and lorazepam. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;65(3):386-94. PMID: 15096079.
- Nobay F, Simon BC, Levitt MA, Dresden GM. A prospective, double-blind, randomized trial of midazolam versus haloperidol versus lorazepam in the chemical restraint of violent and severely agitated patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2004 Jul;11(7):744-9. doi: 10.1197/j.aem.2003.06.015. PMID: 15231461.
- Calver L, Drinkwater V, Gupta R, Page CB, Isbister GK. Droperidol v. haloperidol for sedation of aggressive behaviour in acute mental health: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;206(3):223-8. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.150227. Epub 2014 Nov 13. PMID: 25395689.
Droperidol
- Edge R, Argáez C. Droperidol for Agitation in Acute Care [Internet]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2021 Jan. PMID: 34185452.
- Budiharto L, De Fruyt J. Droperidol in de behandeling van acute agitatie: nog steeds een plaats [Droperidol for the treatment of acutely agitated patients: still an option]. Tijdschr Psychiatr. 2013;55(3):183-92. Dutch. PMID: 23512631.
- Khokhar MA, Rathbone J. Droperidol for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Dec 15;12(12):CD002830. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD002830.pub3. PMID: 27976370; PMCID: PMC6463952.
- Chan EW, Taylor DM, Knott JC, Phillips GA, Castle DJ, Kong DC. Intravenous droperidol or olanzapine as an adjunct to midazolam for the acutely agitated patient: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2013 Jan;61(1):72-81. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2012.07.118. Epub 2012 Sep 13. PMID: 22981685.
- Yap CYL, Taylor DM, Knott JC, Taylor SE, Phillips GA, Karro J, Chan EW, Kong DCM, Castle DJ. Intravenous midazolam-droperidol combination, droperidol or olanzapine monotherapy for methamphetamine-related acute agitation: subgroup analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Addiction. 2017 Jul;112(7):1262-1269. doi: 10.1111/add.13780. Epub 2017 Feb 28. PMID: 28160494.
- Taylor DM, Yap CYL, Knott JC, Taylor SE, Phillips GA, Karro J, Chan EW, Kong DCM, Castle DJ. Midazolam-Droperidol, Droperidol, or Olanzapine for Acute Agitation: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2017 Mar;69(3):318-326.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.07.033. Epub 2016 Oct 10. PMID: 27745766.
- Rosen CL, Ratliff AF, Wolfe RE, Branney SW, Roe EJ, Pons PT. The efficacy of intravenous droperidol in the prehospital setting. J Emerg Med 1997;15:13–7.
- Calver L, Drinkwater V, Gupta R, Page CB, Isbister GK. Droperidol v. haloperidol for sedation of aggressive behaviour in acute mental health: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;206(3):223-8. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.114.150227. Epub 2014 Nov 13. PMID: 25395689.
- Thomas H Jr, Schwartz E, Petrilli R. Droperidol versus haloperidol for chemical restraint of agitated and combative patients. Ann Emerg Med. 1992 Apr;21(4):407-13. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(05)82660-5. PMID: 1554179.
- Cole JB, Lee SC, Martel ML, Smith SW, Biros MH, Miner JR. The Incidence of QT Prolongation and Torsades des Pointes in Patients Receiving Droperidol in an Urban Emergency Department. West J Emerg Med. 2020 Jul 2;21(4):728-736.
- Calver L, Isbister GK. High dose droperidol and QT prolongation: analysis of continuous 12-lead recordings. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2014 May;77(5):880-6. doi: 10.1111/bcp.12272. PMID: 24168079; PMCID: PMC4004408.
- Perkins J, Ho JD, Vilke GM, DeMers G. American Academy of Emergency Medicine Position Statement: Safety of Droperidol Use in the Emergency Department. J Emerg Med. 2015 Jul;49(1):91-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2014.12.024. Epub 2015 Mar 30. PMID: 25837231.
- Calver L, Page CB, Downes MA, Chan B, Kinnear F, Wheatley L, Spain D, Isbister GK. The Safety and Effectiveness of Droperidol for Sedation of Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Sep;66(3):230-238.e1.
Olanzapine
- Shrewsbury SB, Hocevar-Trnka J, Satterly KH, Craig KL, Lickliter JD, Hoekman J. The SNAP 101 Double-Blind, Placebo/Active-Controlled, Safety, Pharmacokinetic, and Pharmacodynamic Study of INP105 (Nasal Olanzapine) in Healthy Adults. J Clin Psychiatry. 2020 Jun 30;81(4):19m13086. doi: 10.4088/JCP.19m13086. PMID: 32609960.
- Khorassani F, Saad M. Intravenous Olanzapine for the Management of Agitation: Review of the Literature. Ann Pharmacother. 2019 Aug;53(8):853-859. doi: 10.1177/1060028019831634. Epub 2019 Feb 13. PMID: 30758221.
- Suzuki H, Gen K, Takahashi Y. A naturalistic comparison study of the efficacy and safety of intramuscular olanzapine, intramuscular haloperidol, and intramuscular levomepromazine in acute agitated patients with schizophrenia. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2014 Jan;29(1):83-8. doi: 10.1002/hup.2376. PMID: 24424709.
- Chan EW, Taylor DM, Knott JC, Phillips GA, Castle DJ, Kong DC. Intravenous droperidol or olanzapine as an adjunct to midazolam for the acutely agitated patient: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2013 Jan;61(1):72-81. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2012.07.118. Epub 2012 Sep 13. PMID: 22981685.
- Yap CYL, Taylor DM, Knott JC, Taylor SE, Phillips GA, Karro J, Chan EW, Kong DCM, Castle DJ. Intravenous midazolam-droperidol combination, droperidol or olanzapine monotherapy for methamphetamine-related acute agitation: subgroup analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Addiction. 2017 Jul;112(7):1262-1269. doi: 10.1111/add.13780. Epub 2017 Feb 28. PMID: 28160494.
- Chan HY, Ree SC, Su LW, Chen JJ, Chou SY, Chen CK, Chen YS. A double-blind, randomized comparison study of efficacy and safety of intramuscular olanzapine and intramuscular haloperidol in patients with schizophrenia and acute agitated behavior. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2014 Jun;34(3):355-8. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000120. PMID: 24743717.
- Breier A, Meehan K, Birkett M, David S, Ferchland I, Sutton V, Taylor CC, Palmer R, Dossenbach M, Kiesler G, Brook S, Wright P. A double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-response comparison of intramuscular olanzapine and haloperidol in the treatment of acute agitation in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 May;59(5):441-8. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.59.5.441. PMID: 11982448.
- Huang CL, Hwang TJ, Chen YH, Huang GH, Hsieh MH, Chen HH, Hwu HG. Intramuscular olanzapine versus intramuscular haloperidol plus lorazepam for the treatment of acute schizophrenia with agitation: An open-label, randomized controlled trial. J Formos Med Assoc. 2015 May;114(5):438-45. doi: 10.1016/j.jfma.2015.01.018. Epub 2015 Mar 17. PMID: 25791540.
- Katagiri H, Fujikoshi S, Suzuki T, Fujita K, Sugiyama N, Takahashi M, Gomez JC. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of rapid-acting intramuscular olanzapine in Japanese patients for schizophrenia with acute agitation. BMC Psychiatry. 2013 Jan 11;13:20.
- Hsu WY, Huang SS, Lee BS, Chiu NY. Comparison of intramuscular olanzapine, orally disintegrating olanzapine tablets, oral risperidone solution, and intramuscular haloperidol in the management of acute agitation in an acute care psychiatric ward in Taiwan. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2010;30:230–4.
- Kinon BJ, Ahl J, Rotelli MD, McMullen E. Efficacy of accelerated dose titration of olanzapine with adjunctive lorazepam to treat acute agitation in schizophrenia. Am J Emerg Med. 2004 May;22(3):181-6.
- Wright P, Birkett M, David SR, Meehan K, Ferchland I, Alaka KJ, Saunders JC, Krueger J, Bradley P, San L, Bernardo M, Reinstein M, Breier A. Double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of intramuscular olanzapine and intramuscular haloperidol in the treatment of acute agitation in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Jul;158(7):1149-51. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1149. PMID: 11431240.
Loxapine
- Kwentus J, Riesenberg RA, Marandi M, Manning RA, Allen MH, Fishman RS, Spyker DA, Kehne JH, Cassella JV. Rapid acute treatment of agitation in patients with bipolar I disorder: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial with inhaled loxapine. Bipolar Disord. 2012 Feb;14(1):31-40. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2011.00975.x. PMID: 22329470.
- Faden J, Citrome L. Examining the safety, efficacy, and patient acceptability of inhaled loxapine for the acute treatment of agitation associated with schizophrenia or bipolar I disorder in adults. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019 Aug 7;15:2273-2283. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S173567. PMID: 31496709; PMCID: PMC6689540.
- San L, Estrada G, Oudovenko N, Vieta E. Rationale and design of the PLACID study: a randomised trial comparing the efficacy and safety of inhaled loxapine versus IM aripiprazole in acutely agitated patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 4;17(1):126. doi: 10.1186/s12888-017-1291-5. PMID: 28376877; PMCID: PMC5379730.
Risperidone
- Fang M, Chen H, Li LH, Wu R, Li Y, Liu L, Ye M, Huang J, Zhu S, Wang G, Zhang Q, Zheng H, Zhang L, Wang B, Zhou J, Zhao JP. Comparison of risperidone oral solution and intramuscular haloperidol with the latter shifting to oral therapy for the treatment of acute agitation in patients with schizophrenia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012 Mar;27(2):107-13. doi: 10.1097/YIC.0b013e32834fc431. PMID: 22233697.
- Currier GW, Chou JC, Feifel D, Bossie CA, Turkoz I, Mahmoud RA, Gharabawi GM. Acute treatment of psychotic agitation: a randomized comparison of oral treatment with risperidone and lorazepam versus intramuscular treatment with haloperidol and lorazepam. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;65(3):386-94. PMID: 15096079.
Aripiprazole
- Gonzalez D, Bienroth M, Curtis V, Debenham M, Jones S, Pitsi D, George M. Consensus statement on the use of intramuscular aripiprazole for the rapid control of agitation in bipolar mania and schizophrenia. Curr Med Res Opin. 2013 Mar;29(3):241-50. doi: 10.1185/03007995.2013.766591. Epub 2013 Feb 4. PMID: 23323879.
- Ostinelli EG, Jajawi S, Spyridi S, Sayal K, Jayaram MB. Aripiprazole (intramuscular) for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation (rapid tranquillisation). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jan 8;1(1):CD008074. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008074.pub2. PMID: 29308601; PMCID: PMC6491326.
- San L, Estrada G, Oudovenko N, Vieta E. Rationale and design of the PLACID study: a randomised trial comparing the efficacy and safety of inhaled loxapine versus IM aripiprazole in acutely agitated patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. BMC Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 4;17(1):126. doi: 10.1186/s12888-017-1291-5. PMID: 28376877; PMCID: PMC5379730.
- Tran-Johnson TK, Sack DA, Marcus RN, Auby P, McQuade RD, Oren DA. Efficacy and safety of intramuscular aripiprazole in patients with acute agitation: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Jan;68(1):111-9. doi: 10.4088/jcp.v68n0115. PMID: 17284138.
Ziprasidone
- Bouchette D, Fariba K, Marwaha R. Ziprasidone. 2021 Jul 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan–. PMID: 28846230.
- Martel ML, Driver BE, Miner JR, Biros MH, Cole JB. Randomized Double-blind Trial of Intramuscular Droperidol, Ziprasidone, and Lorazepam for Acute Undifferentiated Agitation in the Emergency Department. Acad Emerg Med. 2021 Apr;28(4):421-434. doi: 10.1111/
Other Agents/ Interventions –
- Paris G, Bighelli I, Deste G, Siafis S, Schneider-Thoma J, Zhu Y, Davis JM, Vita A, Leucht S. Short-acting intramuscular second-generation antipsychotic drugs for acutely agitated patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Schizophr Res. 2021 Mar;229:3-11. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2021.01.021. Epub 2021 Feb 17. PMID: 33607608.
- Pratts M, Citrome L, Grant W, Leso L, Opler LA. A single-dose, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of sublingual asenapine for acute agitation. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2014 Jul;130(1):61-8. doi: 10.1111/acps.12262. Epub 2014 Mar 10. PMID: 24606117.
Review Article
- Dundar Y, Greenhalgh J, Richardson M, Dwan K. Pharmacological treatment of acute agitation associated with psychotic and bipolar disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2016 Jul;31(4):268-85. doi: 10.1002/hup.2535. Epub 2016 May 5. PMID: 27151529.
- Bak M, Weltens I, Bervoets C, De Fruyt J, Samochowiec J, Fiorillo A, Sampogna G, Bienkowski P, Preuss WU, Misiak B, Frydecka D, Samochowiec A, Bak E, Drukker M, Dom G. The pharmacological management of agitated and aggressive behaviour: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Psychiatry. 2019 Apr;57:78-100. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.01.014. Epub 2019 Feb 2. PMID: 30721802.
- Kim HK, Leonard JB, Corwell BN, Connors NJ. Safety and efficacy of pharmacologic agents used for rapid tranquilization of emergency department patients with acute agitation or excited delirium. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2021 Feb;20(2):123-138. doi: 10.1080/14740338.2021.1865911. Epub 2021 Jan 13. PMID: 33327811.
- Zareifopoulos N, Panayiotakopoulos G. Treatment Options for Acute Agitation in Psychiatric Patients: Theoretical and Empirical Evidence. Cureus. 2019 Nov 14;11(11):e6152. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6152. PMID: 31890361; PMCID: PMC6913952.
- Muir-Cochrane E, Oster C, Gerace A, Dawson S, Damarell R, Grimmer K. The effectiveness of chemical restraint in managing acute agitation and aggression: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Int J Ment Health Nurs. 2020 Apr;29(2):110-126. doi: 10.1111/inm.12654. Epub 2019 Sep 9. PMID: 31498960.
- Zun LS. Evidence-Based Review of Pharmacotherapy for Acute Agitation. Part 1: Onset of Efficacy. J Emerg Med. 2018 Mar;54(3):364-374. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.10.011. Epub 2018 Feb 1. PMID: 29361326.
- Nordstrom K, Allen MH. Alternative delivery systems for agents to treat acute agitation: progress to date. Drugs. 2013 Nov;73(16):1783-92. doi: 10.1007/s40265-013-0130-3. PMID: 24151084.
- Garriga M, Pacchiarotti I, Kasper S, Zeller SL, Allen MH, Vázquez G, Baldaçara L, San L, McAllister-Williams RH, Fountoulakis KN, Courtet P, Naber D, Chan EW, Fagiolini A, Möller HJ, Grunze H, Llorca PM, Jaffe RL, Yatham LN, Hidalgo-Mazzei D, Passamar M, Messer T, Bernardo M, Vieta E. Assessment and management of agitation in psychiatry: Expert consensus. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2016;17(2):86-128. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2015.1132007. PMID: 26912127.
- Williamson D, Frenette AJ, Burry LD, Perreault M, Charbonney E, Lamontagne F, Potvin MJ, Giguère JF, Mehta S, Bernard F. Pharmacological interventions for agitated behaviours in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. BMJ Open. 2019 Jul 9;9(7):e029604. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029604. PMID: 31289093; PMCID: PMC6615826.
- Ward K, Citrome L. The treatment of acute agitation associated with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder: investigational drugs in early stages of their clinical development, and their clinical context and potential place in therapy. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2020 Mar;29(3):245-257. doi: 10.1080/13543784.2020.1727884. Epub 2020 Feb 26. PMID: 32031021.
- Bosanac P, Hollander Y, Castle D. The comparative efficacy of intramuscular antipsychotics for the management of acute agitation. Australas Psychiatry. 2013 Dec;21(6):554-62. doi: 10.1177/1039856213499620. Epub 2013 Aug 31. PMID: 23996795.
Medical Podcasts
- https://emergencymedicinecases.com/emergency-management-agitated-patient/
- https://errxpodcast.com/agitation-er/
- https://coreem.net/podcast/episode-56-0/
- https://prehospitalmed.com/2012/05/25/pharm-podcast-013-acute-agitation-management-in-retrieval-medicine-with-dr-casey-parker/
- https://pharm-so-hard.com/2020/09/23/episode-26-the-b52-is-trash-going-from-the-b52-to-the-55-blitz-with-dan-mccollum/